Introduction
The concept of nationalism was emerged in Europe when freedom
from religious restrictions led to the enhancement of national identity in the
mid-15th century and was intensified by the French Revolution of 1789 where the
sovereignty passed from the hands of an absolute monarch to the French citizens
and strengthened by American Revolution of 1765-1783 where Americans revolted
against British colonialism and claimed that all men are created equal, they
have God-given rights, and all legitimate authority must come from consent. 
Nationalism has been one of the points of contention in the
world and in Ethiopia. “Nationalism is today a maker or breaker of states, an
agent of peace, stability and progress as well as a cause of horrendous
bloodshed, destabilization and destruction” (Gedlu, 2013, P.1). Nationalism
has been seen by some as a positive thing and by others as negative. In this
article, I will briefly discuss nationalism in Ethiopia with particular emphasis
on ethnic nationalism.
What is Nationalism?
The term nationalism presumes the very existence of “nation”. Black's
Law Dictionary defines nation as “A people …. inhabiting a distinct
portion of the earth, speaking the same language, using the same customs,
possessing historic continuity, and distinguished from other like groups by
their racial origin and characteristics, and generally, but not necessarily,
living under the same government and sovereignty”. Nation is the collection of
individuals who have common bondage and nationalism is a sentiment or belief
that produces loyalty and devotion to one’s nation.
According to Merriam Webster online dictionary, nationalism is
“a sense of national consciousness exalting one nation above all others and
placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests as opposed
to those of other nations or supranational groups”. Per this definition,
nationalism is characterized by the promotion of the interest of specific group
(nation, nationality, or people) as opposed to that of others. The objective of
nationalism is developing and maintaining national identity based on the common
characteristics such as language, culture, race, history, religion, political
goal, territory, or belief in common ancestry and making the group which has the
common characteristics free from unwanted interference. According to Indian
historian Dr. Hareet Kumar Meena “The term nationalism is essentially a
sentiment of unity arising among a number of people usually of the same
territory, sharing a common language, similar history and traditions, common
interests with common political association and common ideals of political
unity. The presence or absence of any one or more factors does not necessarily
imply the presence or absence of a spirit of nationalism. What is important is
the will of the people to live together free from all external control” (Meena:
2016). The key points here are “common characteristics”, “to live together” and
“free from all external control”.
For nationalism to exist, the existence of common
characteristics is important. For example, the Black Nationalism in America has
centered on race and color. In his famous speech “The Ballot or the Bullet”,
Malcom X who was one of the leaders of Black Nationalism requested African
Americans to leave their differences such as religion at home and unite around
the political, economic, and social philosophy of Black Nationalism where black
man and woman should control the politics and politicians in their own
community (self- administration); to unite against the enemy who is common to
all of them. He argued that blacks are attacked not because of being Christian
or Muslim or nationalist, but because of being black. He further argued that
African Americans suffered from the same political oppression, economic
exploitation, and social degradation from the same enemy (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8zLQLUpNGsc)
because of being black. The objective of Black Nationalism was to unite blacks
around their color and race which are their common characteristics to struggle
for their rights. Other nationalisms may focus on other common characteristics
such as language, culture, history or territory. Eritrean nationalism for
example united Eritreans based on common territory and common history; Oromo
nationalism is based on common ancestry, common language, common culture, and
common history.
In countries like the United States of America where migration
created diverse communities and no visible sense of homogeneity, the idea of
citizenship is dominant than being a member in specific nation or nationality.
Types of Nationalism
Nationalism can be divided into various types based on
different factors and considerations. In this article, we will see only limited
types of nationalism. Based on its foundations, nationalism can be divided into
three main types:
1. Ethnic Nationalism— Ethnic nationalism is a
sentiment or movement that creates a sense of belongingness, loyalty, and
devotion based on ethnic group’s common culture, language, history, territory,
or race. It focuses on the preservation of the identity, solidarity, and
tradition of the ethnic group and respect of the right of that ethnic group.
Ethnic nationalism is mainly expressed on the basis of “given” factor such as
common descent, or ken connection, or blood ties, or race and considered as
having exclusive nature. It is also called biological or organic nationalism.
2. Civic/Social Nationalism-This is a nationalism based on a
sentiment of social and cultural ties rather than common descent. In this type
of nationalism, outsiders or immigrants can join the social or cultural group
by assimilating themselves into the culture, by complying with their living
standard, and integrating into that society.
3. Official/State Nationalism- This is a nationalism of
state including all citizens of the state irrespective of their ethnicity and
cultural identity. It is expressed in term of loyalty to the state or
patriotism. It is usually taught at state level by government agencies. Official/state
nationalism takes national sovereignty and territory/place of birth as an
outstanding value. According to Dr. Assefa Tefera Dibaba, Medemer (unity
in diversity or integration) which aims to reintegrate the culturally and
socio-politically divided ethnicities and ethno-nations in Ethiopia is a “neo-official-nationalism”(Assefa
Tefera Dibaba July 30, 2018).
Some of nationalisms such as Oromo and Amhara nationalisms
have the combined characteristics of ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism
because they accept anyone who integrates himself or herself as part of that
group. They are not pure biological or organic nationalisms. For example, OLF
used to have non-Oromo members and fighters who were integrated into Oromo
national movement. Oromo’s inclusive cultures such as guddifacha, moggasa,
harma hodha, and michu made Oromo nationalism to cross the boundary of
ethnic nationalism and enter into civic/social nationalism. Therefore, Oromo
nationalism can be categorized as civic/social nationalism.
Based on its objective, we can divide nationalism into two:
1. Oppressor/Expansionist Nationalism-
Oppressor/ Expansionist nationalism is an aggressive form
of nationalism that aims at extending its group hegemony to others
and incorporating autonomous territories or recovering what it claims “formerly
owned” territories by force. It forcefully imposes its cultures and values on peoples
who live in the occupied/incorporated territories. It is also called
chauvinistic nationalism because it seeks to disparage the other nations and
nationalities whilst glorifying its own distinct nation. Oppressor/
expansionist/ chauvinistic nationalism was a problem in Ethiopia in the past
and in the process of resurfacing once again.
2. Nationalism of Conquered or Oppressed Peoples- This is
the nationalism of the oppressed group and its objective is to reject or challenge
the oppression. They oppose the domination by the more powerful ones who
denied them their rights. According to Dr. Meena (2016), Indian nationalism
arose basically to meet the challenge of British’s foreign domination. He
argues that the British rule facilitated the growth of national sentiment among
the Indian people. Dr. Asafa Jalata argues that Oromo nationalism is the
nationalism of the oppressed emerged in response to Amhara nationalism that
aimed at expanding to others’ territories, controlling and dominating other
ethnic groups. Oromo nationalism is aimed at defending the Oromo nation from
external oppression and preserve Oromo identity, culture, language, history,
and values (https://youtu.be/X8oo0LhJN7A?t=557
).
There are also other types of nationalisms such as liberal
nationalism which is based on liberal values (freedom,
equality, tolerance, and rights of individuals), religious nationalism which is
based on particular dogmas or affiliation, nationalism of minorities where minorities in a given
country who have common interests come together. For example one of the leaders
of Southern Ethiopia Green Stars Coalition Mr. Shimelis Kitancho argues
that the minorities in Ethiopia are “sleeping giant” and if they wake up they
will change Ethiopian political landscape and become dominant power(https://youtu.be/XADr6cfNhB0?t=7666
and https://youtu.be/EMRkX84wmMo
).
Nationalism in Pre 1991 Ethiopia
Nationalism has been one of the points of debates in the world
politics for centuries. In Ethiopia, ethnic nationalism became popular topic
following the emergence of Ethiopian Students’ Movement (ESM) in mid- 1960s. As
Assafa Endeshaw wrote “The introduction of ‘the national question’ into
Ethiopian politics, even the very formulation of the problem as such, owes its
origin, largely and almost exclusively, to the influence of Marxism in the
Ethiopian student movement of the 1960s and 1970s”(January 12, 2017). In its
1969 congress held in Philadelphia, U.S.A, Ethiopian Students Association in
North America (ESANA) which was later named Ethiopian Students Union in North
America (ESUNA) discussed the problem of regionalism in Ethiopia as the major
agenda. In the 1971 ESUNA congress held at the UCLA in Los Angeles, USA, the
main agenda discussed was “the national question” (Alem Habtu, February 25,
2015, P. 3). Papers like “On the Question of Nationalities in Ethiopia”
written by Walleligne Mekonnen and published in the student magazine called Struggle
on Nov. 17, 1969 and “The
National Question in Ethiopia” written by Tilahun Takele (1971) made
nationalism one of the discussion points among Ethiopian students. Because of
the historical linkage between the rise of ethnic nationalism and ESM, some
Ethiopian politicians accuse ESM of 1960s and 1970s as a source of Ethiopia’s
political problem of today. For example, the current Deputy Leader of Ethiopian
Citizens for Social Justice Party Mr. Andualem Aragie says:
While Atse Tewodros and the
Girmame crew respected the existing history and went with it, the students had
no esteem for the history of Ethiopia. It is impossible to find a historical
event in which at the very least Oromos, Agaw and Tigres did not take part.
However, the students embalmed the entire history of Ethiopia as feudal and
Amhara. The thread of racism/xenophobia that is still shaking the foundation of
our country can be traced back to this student movement. In addition, even though
a show of force has for years been used to climb to the top of power and to
resolve differences, the student movement also introduced the culture of using
writing to disparage one another. In particular, as some maintain, the paper by
Tilahun Takele on the issue of ethnic groups can be cited as an example. A
student protest that began with vilifying one another ended with killing one
another (Aragie May 24, 2018).
Most of the political organization which emerged from
Ethiopian students’ movement including EPRP, AESM/MEISON, and WPE acknowledged
the rights of nations and nationalities in Ethiopia. Regardless of opposition
and suppression directed to it, the issue of ethnic nationalism became popular
in Ethiopia since mid-1960s and has been a factor which divided Ethiopian
politicians in to two main groups—those who support ethnic nationalism and
those who oppose it. It has been used as a means to bring people who have
common characteristics and common purposes together and organize them against
common oppressors. The attempts to put all nationalisms in one basket to
create a single Ethiopian nationalism with the characteristics of the values of
the ruling/dominant group were failed repeatedly. It failed under Hailesellasse
and Derg regimes. Dozens of armed nationalist organizations picked up guns to
defend the rights of their respective ethnic group/nation. These nationalist struggles
lead to the weakening of the central government of Ethiopia, downfall of Derg
in 1991, separation of Eritrea from Ethiopia, and changing Ethiopia from
unitary to federal state.
Nationalism from 1991-2018
Learning lessons from the failures of Hailesellassie and Derg
regimes in handling national questions, EPRDF came up with the idea of
embracing multiple nationalisms in Ethiopia through federation of nations,
nationalities, and peoples which is believed the middle ground between those
who demand the right for self-determination including secession and those who
want to maintain unconditional unity by all means.
With the favorable political environment created in 1991,
ethnic groups that had been assimilated and close to vanishing joined the
movement for the promotion of nationalism and multiple nationalisms flourished
in Ethiopia. Some of the factors that contributed to the promotion of
nationalism in the post 1991 Ethiopia are the following:
1. Existence of Legal Basis- Following the approval of the
Transitional Period Charter of Ethiopia in July 1991 which affirmed the rights
of nations, nationalities, and peoples to self–determination and enshrined the
right of every ethnic group “to preserve its identity and have it respected,
promote its culture and history and use and develop its language”, nationalism
is legally backed principle in Ethiopia. According to Article 88 of the
constitution of FDRE, Ethiopian Government has the duty to promote and support
the People’s self-rule at all levels and to respect the identity of Nations,
Nationalities, and Peoples. Therefore, ethnic groups in Ethiopia have
constitutional rights to promote nationalism and the government has a duty
respect this constitutional right.
2. Unifying Regionalization-In pre-1991 Ethiopia,
nations/nationalities like Oromos have been divided into different provinces or
administrative units. However, after 1991, the majority of the ethnic groups
got the chance to get their own region in which they administer themselves,
develop their values, and use their own languages. These strengthen a sense of
belongingness and bondage.
3. Expansions of Education- With the opening of many public
and private schools and universities, the opportunities for education have been
expanded in the last 28 years. This created more educated persons who become
more conscious about their individual and group rights.
4. Ease of Transportation and Communication- The
expansion of road networks which made the mobility of people easier, the
expansion of ICT particularly emails, social media, and internet which made the
sharing of information easier facilitated mobilization of members of certain ethnic
groups for their common objective.
5. Role Modelling- Some
ethnic groups took others as their role model and replicated what they
are doing including organizing themselves along ethnic line, establishing their
local development associations, promoting their culture and language.
Ethnic competition or ethnic outbidding usually gives rise to
more ethnic based parties. These ethnic based parties may sustain or threaten
a democratic system depending on how they are handled. EPRDF introduced the idea
of “democratic nationalism” in which individual and group rights could be
respected in a balanced way, nationalism is promoted in a democratic way, and
extreme nationalism is discouraged.
Nationalism in Post 2018 Ethiopia
With the weakening of EPRDF and greenlight from the current
EPRDF chairman on the need to change the current constitution and the federal
arrangement which in turn created expectation and demand for change, crimes linked
to nationalism have been seen in an increasing number and type. We saw
extremisms among university students, soccer/football fans, urban dwellers, and
rural residents. These extremisms and other crimes such as homicide, armed
robbery, and intentional destruction of private and public property which are punishable
in every part of the world have been tolerated in Ethiopia after 2018. Nowadays,
there is a suspicion that the government of Ethiopia is tolerating crimes
committed under the name of nationalism to show case them that the current constitution
and federalism are bringing disaster to the country and to mobilize support to
change them.
In the post 2018 Ethiopia, expansionist nationalism that claim
the territories in other States/Regions by undermining State borders and preparation
for war to recover what they claim “the former territory (rist)”, evicting
people for the simple reason that they do not belong to ethnic group that is
dominant in that State/Region, and media that disseminate hate speeches and
extreme and radical ideas that provoke conflict have been tolerated. In short,
nationalism in post 2018 Ethiopia is going in the wrong direction and reaching
at the extreme point where it may pose danger to the lives of Ethiopians. The
failure of government to maintain law and order is making its existence
irrelevant and leading to the high demand for guns to protect oneself and
family and influx of illegal armaments into the country. This may lead to the emergence
of warlords like in the failed state of neighboring Somalia.
Conclusion
The challenge that Ethiopia currently facing is how to keep
the balance between respect to multiple nationalisms or multiculturalism and
liberal values on which democracy is based so that the unity of the country is
not undermined by contending nationalisms and claims to the rights to association
and self-determination. Nationalism by itself is not a negative thing. However,
like any other belief or sentiment it poses danger when it goes to the extreme.
The attempt to remove one side of the equation instead of searching
for the right balance (equilibrium) between multiculturalism and unity of the
nation-state may take the country back into the cycle of conflict. The
possibility of nations and nationalities accepting the proposal to give away
some of their rights such as self- administration, promoting their cultures and
languages, and being under one regional administration is very slim. I don’t
think Tigraway, Somalis, Afars, and Oromo like to be divided into different
administrative regions and replacement of their languages with another for
conducting official businesses.
We heard several times EPRDF saying it has been decayed, but
we didn’t expect that the leaders of the decayed EPRDF contradict its core principles
like multiculturalism and federalism and vilify the constitution in which EPRDF
members put lots of effort to bring into effect. EPRDF leaders’ lack of
interest to respect the constitution and its core principles shows that the
decayed EPRDF could no longer be the guardian of the constitution. I am not
against any change to the constitution or state border that followed the
procedures stipulated in the constitution, but I have a worry that the
collusion of the decayed EPRDF leaders with anti-multiculturalism forces to
contravene the constitution may lead the country to the wrong direction.
References:
1. Transitional
Period Charter of Ethiopia: https://chilot.me/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/the-transitional-period-charter-of-ethiopia.pdf
2. Meena,
Hareet Kumar. (2016 ). Understanding the Nature and Growth of Indian
Nationalism in the Latter Half of 19th Century. American International
Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences. http://iasir.net/AIJRHASSpapers/AIJRHASS16-158.pdf
3. Dibaba,
Assefa Tefera. (July 30, 2018). “Ethiopianism,” The
“Neo-Official-Nationalism,” and the “Oromia First!” Trend. Ethiopian
Observer.
4. Habtu,
Alem. (February 25, 2015). The Ethiopian Student Movement (ESM): My
Experiences in ESUNA, 1964-1971. http://www.aigaforum.com/articles/Habtu-Alem-ESM-Presentation-Feb-2015.pdf
5. Aragie,
Andualem. May 24, 2018. Delivering an unborn dream left to us. Ethiopia
Nege.
6. Endeshaw,
Assafa. (January 12, 2017). Nationalism in Ethiopia Revisited.
Nazret.com. https://www.nazret.com/2017/01/12/nationalism-in-ethiopia-revisited/
7. Gedlu,
Tewodros Hailemariam. (2013).A History of Nationalism in Ethiopia: 1941 To
2012. Department of History, Addis Ababa University. https://www.scribd.com/doc/243461920/A-History-of-Nationalism-in-Ethiopia-1941-2012
